Femicide Violence against women comprises a wide range of acts – from verbal harrasment and other forms of emotional abuse, to daily physical or sexual abuse. At the far end of the spectrum is femicide: the murder of a woman.

Femicide General definition

Killing of women and girls because of their gender, which can take the form of, inter alia:

• the murder of women as a result of intimate partner violence
• the torture and misogynist slaying of women
• killing of women and girls in the name of “honour”
• targeted killing of women and girls in the context of armed conflict
• dowry-related killings of women
• killing of women and girls because of their sexual orientation and gender identity
• the killing of aboriginal and indigenous women and girls because of their gender
• female infanticide and gender-based sex selection foeticide
• genital mutilation related deaths
• accusations of witchcraft; and
• other femicides connected with gangs, organized crime, drug dealers, human trafficking and the proliferation of small arms.

Femicide Statistical definition

The killing of a woman by an intimate partner and the death of a woman as a result of a practice that is harmful to women. Intimate partner is understood as a former or current spouse or partner, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim.

The term ‘femicide’ (femicidio) was particularly embraced in Latin America as a useful tool in response to an alarming escalation of very violent murders of women and girls. In parallel, the word feminicidio was introduced in order to capture the element of impunity and institutional violence, owing to a lack of accountability and adequate response on the part of the state when such killings occur. This term is used when state accountability is at stake.

we know that a large proportion of femicides are of women in violent relationships, and are committed by current or former partners.

 Femicide is generally understood to involve intentional murder of women because they are women, but broader definitions include any killings of women or girls. This information sheet focuses on the narrower definition commonly used in policies, laws and research: intentional murder of women. Femicide is usually perpetrated by men, but sometimes female family members may be involved. Femicide differs from male homicide in specific ways. For example, most cases of femicide are committed by partners or ex-partners, and involve ongoing abuse in the home, threats or intimidation, sexual violence or situations where women have less power or fewer resources than their partner.

Collecting correct data on femicide is challenging, largely because in most countries, police and medical data-collection systems that document cases of homicide often do not have the necessary information or do not report the victim–perpetrator relationship or the motives for the homicide, let alone gender-related motivations for murder.

However, data on the nature and prevalence of femicide are increasing worldwide, illustrated by the following findings from the literature.

Types and prevalence of femicide

Intimate femicide Femicide committed by a current or former husband or boyfriend is known as intimate femicide or intimate partner homicide. Preliminary findings of an ongoing study by WHO and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine show that more than 35% of all murders of women globally are reported to be  committed by an intimate partner.

In comparison, the same study estimates that only about 5% of all murders of men are committed by an intimate partner. Among all homicides of men and women, approximately 15% are reported to be committed by an intimate partner.

These numbers are conservative, given the high amount of missing data, which is particularly concerning in nonindustrialized countries. In addition to the ratio of women and men killed by their partner, evidence also shows that women killing their male intimate partners often act in self-defence following ongoing violence and intimidation . This corresponds with findings using national statistics from Canada that women are more likely to murder their partner while they are in the relationship, while men are more likely to kill an estranged partner  and that women are more likely to kill their partner as a result of arguments or quarrels, while men are more likely to have a motivation of jealousy for killing . One group of women who might be at increased risk of intimate partner femicide are pregnant women, as an examination of police and medical examiner records in 11 US cities showed.

Not only is intimate partner femicide the most extreme consequence of intimate partner violence, it also has a strong and prolonged impact on women’s surroundings. For example, surviving children of women killed by their intimate partners experience long-lasting effects, since they lose one parent to the murder, the other parent to jail, and often have to leave their parental home and adjust to a new environment in which they might be labelled as the child of the murderer. A recent study from the UK further highlighted that the partner is seldom the sole victim in cases of intimate partner femicide. Others who might also be killed include the couple’s children; unrelated bystanders; people perceived as the victim’s allies by the perpetrator, such as lawyers, relatives, neighbours or friends; and the victim’s new partner.

Dowry-related femicide Another form of murder of women linked to cultural practices is related to dowry. It occurs primarily in areas of the Indian subcontinent, and involves newly married women being killed by in-laws over conflicts related to dowry, such as bringing insufficient dowry to the family . The documented incidence of dowry-related deaths varies greatly. For example, in 2006 India’s National Crime Records Bureau reported approximately 7600 dowry-related deaths, while other estimates put the annual figure at more than double that number. Some sources have estimated that as many as 25 000 newly married women are killed or maimed each year as a result of dowry-related violence.

Non-intimate femicide Femicide committed by someone without an intimate relationship with the victim is known as non-intimate femicide, and femicide involving sexual aggression is sometimes referred to as sexual femicide.

What is the best approach to ending femicide?

Strengthen surveillance and screening of femicide and intimate partner violence

 There is a need to strengthen collection and analysis of mortality data, disaggregate these data by sex and, in the case of murders, ensure documentation of the relationship between the victim and perpetrator. These data can be complemented by information from other sources (e.g. police, mortuaries, courts and medical examiners. In countries where sparse evidence is available on femicide, awareness-raising and advocacy could encourage cooperation among police, medical staff and other relevant agencies to collect and report on the victim–offender relationship and the motivation for the homicide. Steps should also be taken to develop and strengthen research methods that improve understanding of the social context of femicide, including gender inequality.

Train and sensitize health staff

 Training and sensitization of hospital and health workers, mortuary staff and medical examiners could enable personnel to improve the documentation of cases of femicide and of the circumstances surrounding them. Evidencebased guidelines are needed, particularly in relation to categorization of victim– perpetrator relationships and information regarding abuse history. Moreover, there is a need to improve health-care providers’ capacity to identify intimate partner violence and risk of femicide. In some settings, such as the USA, studies have shown that many women accessed health services in the year prior to being killed by their partners. Improving detection of severe partner violence within health systems, particularly during pregnancy, has been suggested as a means of reducing the risk of femicide. A number of assessment tools for detecting risks for intimate partner violence and femicide have been developed in the USA. These tools would need to be tested in other settings. One of the most well tested methods is the Danger Assessment Scale, which specifically assesses the risk that a woman who seeks health care for intimate partner violence has of being killed by her partner.

Train and sensitize police

 As with health-care providers, it would be beneficial for police and other members of the criminal justice system to receive training and sensitization to identify and document cases of femicide, including the reporting of victim– perpetrator relationships. Training for police should also include instruction related to gun removal and enforcement of gun laws in cases of family violence. In conjunction with child protection services, policies and training for police could facilitate identification and support of children affected by intimate partner violence and femicide and laws could ensure appropriate prosecution of perpetrators.

Increase prevention and intervention research

 Overall, the best way to reduce femicide is by reducing intimate partner violence. Research is needed with a focus on perpetrators and potential perpetrators – for example, in relation to risk and protective factors. Studies are also needed to investigate cases of near-fatal intimate partner violence, not only 6 to understand the needs of survivors and characteristics of perpetrators but also to shed light on the factors that may prevent femicide . In light of evidence that leaving a relationship may increase the risk of a woman being killed by her partner, intervention research should also report and examine potential harms of interventions and consider steps for mitigation.

Reduce gun ownership and strengthen gun laws

Studies consistently show an association between ownership of guns, particularly handguns, and perpetration of intimate femicide . Research from the USA has even found an association between women’s acquisition of a gun for their own protection and an increased risk of intimate femicide at the hands of a partner. Women were found to be three times more likely to be murdered if there was a gun in their home . There are recommendations that gun ownership be restricted for all people. More specifically however, research has found that stronger gun laws related to men previously cited for or convicted of intimate partner abuse are of particular importance in reducing rates of femicide.

Strengthen surveillance, research, laws and awareness of murder in the name of ‘honour’

While all of the recommendations related to ending femicide also apply to settings where murder in the name of ‘honour’ occurs, additional measures are needed. Surveillance and research on ‘honour’ crimes is sparse in most countries, and legislation, where it exists, is often poorly enforced and easily circumvented. Advocacy to change laws that permit these types of crimes is essential. Advocates have reported success in raising awareness of these crimes among the public and policy-makers, by collecting and analysing available data, court cases and judges’ rulings, and referencing international human rights instruments relevant to protecting women’s rights. These measures are an important first step in countries where femicide in the name of ‘honour’ takes place. There is also a need to strengthen awareness of and response to the risks of ‘honour’ killings in countries where such killings may be committed, including within migrant communities. Social and health workers and those in the criminal justice system require training and sensitization to identify girls and women at risk of murder related to ‘honour’ and men and other family members at risk of perpetrating this femicide.

Femicide – the killing of women and girls – is the most extreme form of violence on a continuum of violence and discrimination against women and girls.

Various typologies of femicide have been proposed by researchers in the past several decades with most distinguishing ‘intimate femicide’ from various other types of femicide (e.g. familial femicide and stranger femicide).

These two broad categories of femicide are defined below.

Intimate femicide also referred to as intimate partner femicide, captures the killing of women by current or former partners. Globally, women are much more likely than men to be assaulted, raped or killed by a current or former partner and it most often occurs within relationships where there is a history of intimate partner violence.

Non-intimate femicide involves the killing of women by someone with whom they did not share an intimate partner relationship, encompassing a broad range of femicide subtypes such as familial femicide, ‘other known perpetrator’ femicide and stranger femicide.

Below, drawing from prior research, various subtypes of the above broad categories of femicide are described separately. These are not always discrete categories and may often overlap.

For example, the issue of missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls in Canada has received national and international attention in the past several years. Some of these women are killed by male partners; others by acquaintances and strangers. If accepting that Indigenous women and girls are killed, in part, because they are women, the term ‘femicide’ might be used; however, what type of femicide is most appropriate given the types currently available below remains unclear because it is important to capture the way in which the combined identity of ‘Indigenous’ and ‘woman’ leads to higher risk of femicide. This example underscores the importance of intersecting identities in identifying risk as well as the fact that gender may not always be the dominant identity that leads to a woman being killed.

In reviewing the terms below, it was determined that none of the current types of femicide were appropriate for capturing the situation of missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls. Therefore, in the ongoing efforts of the CFOJA to move knowledge forward, one of the first issues to be addressed is to identify an appropriate term and corresponding definition that will capture femicide of Indigenous women and girls. As new forms of femicide are identified, the CFOJA will continue to update the types of femicide and the various contexts within which they occur.

Armed conflict femicide

Both state and non-state actors perpetrate physical, sexual and psychological violence against women and girls as a ‘weapon of war’. Such actions are typically intended to punish or dehumanize women and girls and to persecute the community to which they belong. They are also used as a method of instilling fear, domination and control. Targeted killings are usually premeditated with lethal force intentionally used against selected victims.

Associated/Connected Femicide

This refers to the killing of a woman who was not the intended victim, sometimes referred to as a ‘collateral’ victim, in an attempted or completed femicide of another woman. This might be a female family member, friend, or stranger who was attempting to stop the killing, someone who was in proximity of a woman at high risk of violence, or an individual who was simply in the wrong place at the wrong time.

Culturally-framed femicide

This refers to the killing of women or girls that are framed within a particular cultural context such as ‘honour’-based femicide or dowry-related femicide (see below).

Dowry-related femicide

A dowry is a cultural tradition whereby the family of the bride provides money and/or property to the family of the groom. When a larger dowry is requested following the marriage of the bride and groom, or when the groom’s family is dissatisfied with the dowry given to them, the woman starts to be considered an ‘unsuitable wife’. Women are then killed or forced to commit suicide through torture and harassment by the groom’s family.

 ‘Honour’-based femicide

There is debate about the use of this term to refer to the killing of women or girls because their behaviour was seen by the perpetrator to bring shame to the family. Arguments against its use include are that it categorizes the killings of women and girls by the perpetrator’s rationale; it does not acknowledge that these killings are simply another form of familial femicide and so does not require a unique term; and/or there is no ‘honour’ in killing women and girls. Often perceived as normal behaviours in westernized contexts, the behaviours in question may include the choice of a partner not seen as appropriate, pursuit of education and/or employment, inappropriate attire, or premarital sex or the belief that premarital sex had occurred. Those who frame these killings within a cultural context argue that honour, from the perspective of the perpetrator, is believed to be restored to the family when the woman or girl is killed. These killings are usually perpetrated by male family members, although female perpetrators may also be involved. In some countries, these killings frequently take place in public to influence other women in the community.

Female-perpetrated femicide

Femicide by female perpetrators has been classified into a three-category typology by Diana Russell. The first category is a female acting as an agent of patriarchy, which may include dowry-related killings, female infanticide, and genital mutilation-related deaths. The second category captures females who may be acting as agents of male perpetrators such as accessories in gang-related femicide and what are referred to as ‘honour’ or dowry-related femicide. The final category captures females acting on their own behalf such as those who were driven by jealousy, or motivated by financial, crime-related or ideological activities.

Femicide in the context of human trafficking

This refers to the killing of a woman in the process of recruitment, transportation, and receipt of humans through use of threat, force and other coercive tactics as well as abduction, deceit, and/or abuse of power with the goal of exploitation. Individuals, particularly women and children, are often trafficked into prostitution or the sex trade industry, forced labour, slavery/practices, and other criminal activities.

Femicide in the context of what is referred to as sex work or prostitution

The killing of a woman who is involved in what is referred to as sex work or prostitution. Patriarchy, racism, colonization and stigmatization by society are some key aspects that can be used to understand women’s vulnerability to femicide in this context.

Genital mutilation-related femicide

This type of femicide involves the killing of a girl or woman as the result of the practice of genital mutilation. Female genital mutilation involves the partial or full removal and/or injury of female genitalia for non-medical purposes. It is typically performed on girls between infancy and 15 years of age. Infections which arise as the result of unhygienic operations frequently result in loss of life.

Lesbophobic femicide

This type of femicide involves the killing of a woman by a perpetrator or group of perpetrators motivated by hate or rejection of the woman’s sexual orientation. Sexual violence may also be evident in these femicides because the perpetrator(s) believe the victim violated traditional sexual or gender norms.

Organized crime-related femicide

Beyond femicide perpetrated in the context of human trafficking, other forms of organized crime-related femicide involves the killing of women who are associated with gangs, drugs, smuggling, and/or gun markets. This type of killing can involve abduction, torture and sexual assault, murder and mutilation, decapitation, public displays and/or dumping of naked bodies and/or body parts. These femicides are often meant to serve as a threat to individuals or other organized crime groups.

Racist femicide

This refers to killings that occur because of hate or rejection of a woman’s ethnic or racial origins, real or perceived, or her genetic features.

Transphobic femicide

This refers the killing of transgender victims by a perpetrator or group of perpetrators who are motivated by hate or rejection of the transgender identity. Sexual violence may also be evident in these femicides because the perpetrator(s) believe the victim violated traditional sexual or gender norms.

Sexual femicide

This term refers to sexual violations and sexual violence that result in the death of a woman or girl. Sexual femicides may be intentional including, for example, sexual violence perpetrated during armed conflicts or against particular women, but they may also be unintentional such as sexual violence perpetrated against women by male partners that results in the woman’s death.

The sexual violence involved in sexual femicide may range from leaving the victim unclothed, often displayed publicly, to rape and mutilation.

 

EIGE has therefore decided to begin with a shorter and more feasible classifcation, with 12 types of intentional and unintentional femicide.

1. Intentional killings of women by an intimate partner and/or family member(s)

a. Intentional killing of a woman by an intimate partner (including current or former partners, living in the same household or not)
b. Intentional killing of a woman by family member(s)
i. Honour killing
ii. Dowry-related killing
c. Other intentional killing of a woman by family member(s)

2. Other types of intentional killings

a. Killing of a woman by non-family member(s) involving sexualised violence
b. Sexual-exploitation-related killing of a woman (with the exception of trafcking-related
killing)
c. Trafcking-related killing of a woman
d. Killing of a woman in the context of a continuum of violence in particular settings (including the killing of a woman by carers or persons in authority, killing of political activists,
hate killing)
i. From an authority/political group
ii. In a care relationship
e. Killing of a woman older than 65 by non-family members
f. Other types of intentional killing of a woman not listed above

3. Unintentional killings of women

a. Death of a woman resulting from intimate partner violence
b. FGM-related death
c. Other types of unintentional killing of a woman not included above